PUBLICATIONS
- RESEARCH DESIGN AND STATS
Methodology of Data Collection
Protocols and procedures establish the reliability and reproducibility
of the study’s results. They set forth who will collect
the data and how they will be trained. Have a written protocol
for how data is collected, then follow the same procedure
all the time. Do not be tempted to make “adjustments” to
the protocol as the study proceeds even if better ways of
operating are identified. Without adherence to the study’s
protocols and procedures, the data will be meaningless. Any
change in the protocol invalidates the results because inconsistency
in how they are attained destroys their dependability (Piantadosi,
1997, Chap. 4).
The person collecting or analyzing the data should be “masked” or “blinded” to
the identity of the groups being compared. Masking is an
important aspect of data collection and analysis in experimental
research so that the outcomes are not biased by the researcher’s
expectations (Friedman, et al.,1998,
Chap.6). All the data must be collected in a dependably consistent
manner by a blinded investigator to obtain a reliable answer
to the study’s research question.
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Statistical Analysis and Inference
Data analysis is always done statistically. The research
question and experimental design determine in advance of
data collection how the data will be analyzed statistically.
However, the process cannot be entirely anticipated until
the data is available for analysis. In the conventional comparative
research design using parallel groups, initial statistical
tests comparing the two primary groups of interest are made
even if the groups are stratified by other factors such as
gender or age. If an overall, or main effect, is detected
between the main groups, then the subgroups can be tested post
hoc to determine the exact location of the effect within
the study population’s strata.
The limitation of this type of study design is that interaction
between effects cannot be determined. This is a problem particularly
if the effect in one subgroup runs counter to the overall,
main effect of interest such that the effect in the subgroup
negates the main effect. The factorial study design adjusts
for this possibility by allowing statistical analysis for
main effects as well as the interaction of effects (DeMuth,
1999).
From statistical analysis, inferences can be made about
the results of the study but to have meaning, the results
of the study should be interpreted in light of the current
times and the state of the art and what it may mean for the
future. If an effect is detected by the study, then the various
possible explanations of the effect can be considered. Interpretation
of why or how an effect may have occurred is an issue that
can be covered within the “Discussion” section
of the published report.
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Reading and Interpreting The Life Care Planning Literature
Ultimately, the professional should be prepared to critically
evaluate a study reported in the literature and apply that
new knowledge to their professional practice and future investigative
endeavors. The reader should read and interpret the published
literature in the professional field to determine for his/herself
what to take away from the reading rather than accepting carte
blanchethe conclusions presented by
the research investigators.
The research concepts presented in this text offer a foundation
for developing a general appraisal. Some critical questions
a reader might ask of a published report include:
*How does the research design, methodology and statistical
analysis affect outcome?
*Has the study been powered appropriately?
*What is the period of observation? If
comparisons between LCPs were made after 5 months and the
updated LCPs were completely congruous with the original
LCPs, the meaningfulness might be suspect. However, if the
window of observation were extended to 5 years, and the same
result obtained, it might be meaningful.
*Was the research protocol appropriate and was adherence
to it stringent?
*How credible, ethical and moral is the investigator?
*Does this researcher hold reputable credentials
and is the work supported by a research institution?
*Has the author addressed the points that a study
needs to address?
Elwood (1998, Chaps. 10-15) presents guidelines for critically
evaluating and interpreting specific types of research studies.
The purpose of the published literature is to inform the
public in general and future research efforts in particular.
Therefore, it is paramount that future investigators and
readers are equipped to read the work and parse out for themselves
the strengths and weaknesses of the research, to enable the
specialty practice of Life Care Planning to move forward
into the future.
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Developing a Research Study Proposal
Inexperience does not preclude a professional from entering
the arena of scientific research. All investigators were
once novices. In developing a research study proposal, seasoned
mentors serve an important function for experienced as well
as novice investigators. They can guide the researcher through
the investigative process and give key direction. Sometimes
the key direction is an introduction to the person who can
help at a particular impasse. Sage mentoring is an indispensable
resource to support the professional who embarks upon the
scientific course of investigation.
A second essential resource to facilitate research efforts
is database accessibility. Access to larger caseloads may
be obtained through research institutions such as The Foundation
for Life Care Planning Research. This foundation’s
purpose is to help develop research proposals, provide opportunities
for mentoring, and access to significant databases. For the
professional who is developing a research study proposal,
The Foundation for Life Care Planning Research offers important
support.
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Suggestions for Further Reading: Instrumentation and Data
Collection
Bourque, L., & Fielder, E. (1995). How to conduct
self-administered and mail surveys. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publications.
Buros Institute. (2003). Mental measurements yearbook (15th
Ed.). Buros Institute of Mental Measurements.
Fink, A. (1995). How to analyze survey data. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Fink, A. (1995). How to design surveys. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Fowler, F. (1993). Survey research methods. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Frey, J., & Oishi, S. (1995). How to conduct interviews
by telephone and in person. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
McLaughlin, P. (1990). How to interview: The art of
making questions. North Vancouver, B.C.: International
Self Counsel Press.
Stourthamer-Loeber, M., & Bok Van Kammen, W. (1995). Data
collection and management: A practical guide. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
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